Researching the Trading Systems in the Asian-Pacific Region – APEC, ASEAN, TPP, CPTPP, RCEP and their Members

By Evelyn Ma

Evelyn Ma, now retired, was the Reference Librarian in Foreign and International law and Lecturer in Legal Research at the Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School.

Published November/December 2025

(Previously updated by Wilhelmina Randtke in September 2014; and by Evelyn Ma in June 2020)

See the Archive Version!

1. Membership as of December 2024

  • APEC members: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, United States, and Vietnam.
  • ASEAN members: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
  • TPP members: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, United States (Withdrawn 2017), and Vietnam.
  • CPTPP members: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Vietnam, United Kingdom.
  • RCEP members: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, India (Withdrawn 2019), Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar (not yet ratified), New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam.
  • IPEF members: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, United States, and Vietnam.

The following table delineates major trading relations of member states in the region current through June 2025.

Members APEC ASEAN[1] ASEAN +1 FTA Dialog Partners TPP CPTPP (TPP-11)[2],[3] RCEP (ASEAN+6 FTA partners) IPEF
AUSTRALIA x x x x x x
BANGLADESH
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM x x x x x x
CAMBODIA x x
CANADA x x x
CHILE x x x Applied [4]
CHINA (PRC) x x Applied 2021 x
CHINESE TAIPEI (Taiwan) x Applied 2021
COSTA RICA Applied 2022; Accession expected
ECUADOR Applied 2021
FIJI x
HONG KONG, CHINA x x Applied 2022
INDIA x Withdrawn 2019 x
INDONESIA x x Applied 2024 x x
JAPAN x x x x x x
KOREA, SOUTH x x x x
LAOS x x
MALAYSIA x x x x x x
MEXICO x x x
MYANMAR x x (Not yet ratified)
NEW ZEALAND x x x x x x
PAKISTAN
PAPUA NEW GUINEA x
PERU x x x
PHILIPPINES x x x x
RUSSIA x
SINGAPORE x x x x x x
SRI LANKA Applied
THAILAND x x x x
TIMOR-LESTE Accession expected 2025
UNITED STATES x Withdrawn 2017 x
UNITED KINGDOM x
UKRAINE Applied 2023
URUGUAY Applied 2022
VIETNAM x x x x x x

2. Introduction

This research guide provides basic information about the trading alliances in South East Asia, namely the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the recently formed mega-regional pacts: Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), and their member economies. This is an updated guide with emphasis on resources published from 2020 on.

3. APEC and ASEAN: An Overview

3.1. Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)

APEC was established in 1989. The objective of APEC is to eliminate trade and investment barriers in the Asia-Pacific region. Currently, APEC consists of twenty-one member economies: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, United States, and Vietnam. APEC maintains a Secretariat in Singapore funded by annual contributions from the member economies.

APEC operates on “the basis of non-binding commitments, open dialogue and equal respect for the views of all participating economies.” Unlike other regional economic organizations, APEC does not have a binding treaty that sets forth an institutional framework for economic integration. However, the influence of APEC on the Asia-Pacific region and world economy should not be underestimated. APEC member economies, which cover 2.95 billion people, account for approximately 62% of the world Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 48% of world trade. APEC has greatly contributed to the liberalization of world trade and investment. APEC Member Economies report progress towards achieving free and open trade and investment goals through Individual Action Plans (IAPs) and Collective Action Plans (CAPs). The frequent meetings of the leaders of its members and the exchange of trade information within APEC have facilitated mutual understandings between the least developed nations and the developed nations.[5]

Amidst global trade and economic uncertainty, at the latest Ministers for Trade Meeting held in Jeju, Republic of Korea, in May 2025, APEC issued a joint statement reaffirming multilateralism in trade. The statement also stressed the importance of the World Trade Organization (WTO), commitment to digital transformation and promotion of the prosperity through sustainable trade.

3.2. The Associations of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

ASEAN was established in 1967 by five nations: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. In the 1980’s and 1990’s, five other nations joined ASEAN: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), and Vietnam. Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei Darussalam, and Vietnam are also members of APEC. The goals of ASEAN are to accelerate regional economic growth, facilitate social and culture development, and pursue regional peace, stability, and rule of law.

ASEAN is a treaty-based organization. Compared with APEC, ASEAN is a much smaller and weaker entity.[6] However, in the recent decade, ASEAN played an important role in advocating for the interests of the least developed nations in Southeast Asia, especially after the breakdown of trade talks at the World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference in Seattle in late 1999. By establishing external relations with the developed economies and other regional trade organizations, ASEAN has been active in promoting interregional dialogue and cooperation. As of December 2019, ASEAN has entered into FTAs with Australia-New Zealand (2010-2012), China (2002), India (2003), Japan (2008), South Korea (2005) and Hong Kong, SAR (2018).

Despite being a treaty-based organization, ASEAN is a diverse and informal organization. Under Article 20 of its Charter, decision-making within ASEAN operates on consultation and consensus. Peaceful settlement of disputes and non-interference in the internal affairs of its members are basic principles enshrined in the Charter. The members abide by and refer to these principles with pride as the “ASEAN way.”

By the 2003 Bali Concord II, ASEAN member states committed to greater regional integration and declared the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), formerly under development as the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), one of the three pillars of the ASEAN Community. The other two pillars are the Political-Security Community and the Socio-Cultural Community. ASEAN leaders have created subsequent regional cooperation agreements to support deeper integration. Some of the constituent frameworks of the AEC include the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement (2010), the ASEAN Framework Agreement on Services (1995) which was superseded by ASEAN Trade in Services Agreement (2020), and the ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement (2012). These agreements aim at facilitating trade between states, increasing investment volume, expanding production, and improving transparency in commercial exchanges.

To reinforce economic integration, ASEAN’s dispute settlement mechanisms have also changed over the years, particularly those involving trade disputes. Prior to the ASEAN Charter of 2007, disputes involving ASEAN members were resolved by provisions on dispute settlement in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC). There were no specific provisions addressing economic and trade disputes in TAC. The Protocol on Enhanced Dispute Settlement Mechanism (EDSM), first signed on November 29 2004, was subsequently superseded by the 2019 Protocol. Under Article 1 of the 2019 Protocol, its rules and procedures are applicable to “future ASEAN economic agreements.” Article 14 provides a process of appellate review, and Article 19 is on arbitration.

ASEAN’s regional human rights system has further been elaborated over the last decades from the birth of the ASEAN Charter in 2008 and the establishment of the ASEAN Inter-governmental Commission of Human Rights (AICHR) in 2009, to the adoption of the ASEAN Declaration of Human Rights in 2012. Such significant steps aside, the Commission has been criticized as largely symbolic, operating through consultation and consensus, with each of the ten member states enjoying veto power. The Commission does not provide for independent observers for adjudications and has yet to address human rights issues or violations involving or affecting its members.[7]

Tangential yet integral to trade geopolitical developments affecting ASEAN include the 2016 South China Sea Arbitration award.[8] The issuance of the award did not conclusively settle maritime territorial disputes between China and the Philippines and other ASEAN members. On August 3 2018, foreign ministers of the ten member states of ASEAN and their Chinese counterpart signed the ASEAN-China agreement on a Single Draft Negotiating Text for a Code of Conduct for the South China Sea.[9] The document is intended to serve as the basis for the adoption of a Code of Conduct in the South China Sea. The instrument, nonetheless, is non-binding, with member states reserving their amending powers.[10] On December 12 2019, ASEAN member Malaysia filed a partial submission to the UN Commission on the Limits of Continental Shelf (CLCS) for its claim to an extended continental shelf in the northern part of the South China Sea beyond the limit of the 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone it claims from the baselines along its coast.

Signed June 2019, the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific acknowledges the central role of ASEAN, “ASEAN centrality,” as the underlying principle for promoting cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region.[11] ASEAN-led mechanisms, such as the East Asia Summit (EAS), provides platforms for dialogue and cooperation. The document clarifies ASEAN’s growing recognition that the Asia Pacific and Indian Ocean countries form a closely integrated and inter-connected region. Diverging politico-economic interests among members at times rendered unified ASEAN solutions to problems facing the region difficult. With Malaysia and China as co-chairs and the Philippines the host nation, negotiations of the technical working groups on Code of Conduct for the South China Sea involving China and ASEAN members took place April 9-11, 2025. While the negotiations have yet to materialize into a final Code of Conduct, the official position is that China and ASEAN are politically committed to conclude the long-delayed Code by 2026. Myanmar remains an outlier member of the South-East Asian bloc due to its political and economic instability.

ASEAN announced in May 2025 that it is set to finalize a free trade agreement with China in the near future. Malaysia, the host country of ASEAN2025, convened the ASEAN-GCC-China and ASEAN GCC Economic Fora in Kuala Lumpur, May 27-28, 2025. A tripartite joint statement was released after the meeting, affirming aspirations to economic integration, energy and food security and sustainability, and digital transformation of the region. ASEAN members also individually pursue policies of multifaceted engagement outside of the region on both economic and security fronts. Indonesia joined BRICS in January 2025 but also declared its determination to enter the Western-led OECD. Vietnam underwent bilateral reciprocal tariffs agreements with the U.S. while not committing to formal security alliances.

4. Recent Developments in Asian Pacific Free Trade Alliances: Mega-Regional Trade Agreements and the Belt-Road Initiative

4.1. Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)

The TPP is a now-defunct proposed free trade agreement between Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, the United States, and Vietnam. The proposed agreement in late 2015 was the product of years of negotiations. It was touted as a hallmark achievement for President Obama, who had pushed for a United States foreign policy “pivot” to the Pacific Rim.[12] The goal was to “create a fully integrated economic area in the region and establish consistent rules for global investment,” such as lower tariffs, while at the same time also safeguard against growing influence of China in the region.[13] The agreement was nonetheless never put to a vote in the U.S. Congress. It met with intense bi-partisan opposition during an election year where trade and employment have become key campaign issues and the benefits of trade agreements were questioned. The agreement, signed on 4 February 2016 by the twelve Pacific Rim nations, was not ratified by the U.S. as required and never took effect. The U.S. withdrew its signature from TPP via an executive order issued on January 23, 2017 [as archived by the Wayback Machine on June 5, 2020], the third day of the Trump presidency.

4.2. Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP)[14]

After the demise of the TPP, the remaining eleven nations negotiated a new trade agreement called the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), or TPP-11. CPTPP remains one of the largest free trade agreements in the world, representing nearly 13.5 percent of global gross domestic product (GDP). The agreement links eleven Asia-Pacific economies–Australia, Canada, Chile, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, and Peru in the Pacific region with ASEAN members (Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Singapore, and Vietnam).

Eleven of the original twelve TPP signatories signed the CPTPP on March 8, 2018, in Santiago, Chile. It entered into force on December 30, 2018. The CPTPP incorporates nearly all of the provisions of the TPP, as signed in 2016 by the original twelve parties (including the United States), except for a handful of provisions that the remaining member countries agreed by consensus to suspend. The final text of the CPTPP Agreement, nearly identical to the original TPP, consists of thirty chapters, with the removal of the suspended provisions.

The remaining major provisions of CPTPP relate to tariff cuts, facilitating customs and trade in goods and services, setting standards and streamlining technical barriers to trade, opening investment sectors, and providing for a dispute settlement process, as well as improving intellectual property protection. In addition, there are provisions facilitating e-commerce, regulating the role of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) and government procurement measures, protecting labor, environment, regulatory coherence, and transparency.[15]

On July 16, 2023, CPTPP Parties signed an Accession Protocol with the United Kingdom. As of May 2025, the agreement is in force between twelve countries (Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore and Vietnam, and the U.K.). See the table above for pending applications.

4.3. Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a free trade agreement (FTA) among the ten ASEAN member states (Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam) and the six Asia-Pacific states with which ASEAN has existing free trade agreements (Australia, China, India, Japan, South Korea and New Zealand). The mega-regional FTA involves sixteen countries, accounting for about a third of global GDP and almost half of the world’s population.

Often perceived as a China-led response to the predominantly US-led initiative TPP which excluded China and India, RCEP was launched in November 2012. The objectives of its founding members were to “achieve a modern, comprehensive, high quality and mutually beneficial economic partnership agreement among the ASEAN Member States and ASEAN’s FTA Partners” that will “cover in trade in goods, trade in services, investment, economic and technical cooperation, intellectual property, competition, dispute settlement and other issues.”

Despite its goal of improving regional trade governance through tariffs standardization and market access improvement, RCEP has been criticized for the absence of provisions setting labor and environmental standards, regulating government procurement processes, and ensuring safeguards against corruption, as well as provisions liberalizing state-owned companies.

On November 4, 2019, following the conclusion of the third RCEP Summit, held on the sidelines of the ASEAN Summit in Thailand, a Joint Leaders’ Statement was issued. [16] Fifteen of the original sixteen Asian countries participating in RCEP “have concluded text-based negotiations for all 20 chapters and essentially all their market access issues; and tasked legal scrubbing by them to commence for signing in 2020.”[17] India, the primary holdout in recent negotiations, announced its withdrawal from the agreement at the last minute and at the same time signaled it would not rule out possibility of re-joining.[18]

RCEP entered into force on January 1, 2022, for the ten original parties (Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China, Japan, Laos, New Zealand, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam). The Republic of Korea subsequently ratified on February 1, 2022; Malaysia on March 18, 2022; Indonesia on January 2, 2023; and the Philippines on June 2, 2023. RCEP is the world’s largest free trade agreement by members’ GDP. Myanmar, due to political instability, has yet to accede to the trade agreement.

4.4. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)

As of March 2020, all ten ASEAN members have signed cooperative documents with China, as partners to the China-initiated One Belt One Road Initiative, a plan to promote infrastructure development across Africa, Asia, and Europe with Chinese financing.[19]

4.5. Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF)

Launched in May 2022, signifying the return to multilateral trade engagements of the United States in the Indo-Pacific region under the Biden Administration, IPEF was an initiative to advance resilience, sustainability, inclusiveness, economic growth, fairness, and competitiveness for member economies.

Of the thirteen IPEF partners of the U.S-initiated trade alliance (Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam,[20] seven are ASEAN members (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam), and seven are members of CPTPP (Australia, Brunei, Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, Singapore, Vietnam). The alliance accounted for 40% of the world GDP.

The initiative started with discussions of four pillars of development: (1) Trade; (2) Supply Chains; (3) Clean Energy, De-carbonization and Infrastructure, and (4) Tax and Anti-Corruption. Before the annual meeting held in San Francisco in November 2023, due to disagreement among members, the trade pillar was dropped. The agenda covered issues on labor, environment, digital economy, agriculture, competition policy, regulatory practices, trade facilitation, inclusivity, and economic cooperation/technical assistance. In the subsequent year, IPEF did not take off as a new model of U.S.-led trade engagement alliance, designed to address “21st century trade issues” and to advance “worker-centered” policies and global economic resilience.

5. Resources on APEC and ASEAN

5.1. APEC

APEC Members: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Thailand, United States, and Vietnam

Important Documents

Online Resources

Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC’s) official website is the updated website with improved functionality and includes comprehensive information about the institutional history and organizational framework of the forum, as well as economies of member countries. Of particular interest to trade is the work of the Committee on Trade and Investment (CTI), established in November 1993 by the Declaration of an APEC Trade and Investment Framework and reinforced by the Osaka Action Agenda in 1995. The CTI provides a forum for APEC’s twenty-one member economies to deliberate trade and policy issues, with the objective of helping APEC economies achieve free and open trade and investment.

Monitoring Reports, Completion Reports, and other documents related to projects from 2006 onwards are searchable in the APEC Projects Database. The Meeting Document Database allows retrieval of documents such as leaders’ declarations, ministerial statements, and summary records. The publications search platform includes reports, directories, manuals, proceedings, translations, multimedia, and official brochures. Of particular interest to trade is the APEC Trade Repository, which includes links to tariffs, rules of origin, and domestic trade-related legislation of each APEC member. Information is provided and maintained by each member state.

Asia Regional Integration Center, a subsidiary of Asia Development Bank, includes FTA Database. It covers bilateral and multilateral FTAs with at least one of ADB’s forty-eight regional members as signatory. The comparative FTA toolkit allows side-by-side comparison of concluded FTAs. APEC Study Centers (ASCC) links to the universities in the Asian-Pacific region, focusing on academic research on APEC. The ASCC also holds an annual conference and makes material available via its website.

US Office of the Trade Representative: APEC includes U.S.-APEC trade facts, U.S. tariff rates, and preferential rules of origin.

5.2. ASEAN

ASEAN Members: Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam

ASEAN Expansion: Timor-Leste (Accession expected fall 2025)

Important Documents

Official Websites

Think Tanks, Academic Centers and NGOs

Other Online Resources

Journals

Current Awareness

6. Online Resources on Mega-Regional Trade Pacts: TPP, CPTPP, and RCEP

Government Websites

Other Online Resources

  • Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade (ARTNeT) – In addition to publications and working papers, the site includes Asia-Pacific Trade Indicators Portal, Asia-Pacific Trade and Investment Agreement Database, ESCAP-World Bank Trade Cost Database, UN Global Survey on Digital and Sustainable Trade Facilitation Report and Interactive Database, and other trade analytics tools.
  • Asian Development Bank (ADB) Asia Regional Integration Center Tracking Asian Integration – The portal provides analytical tools to track economic integration of the region and includes a comprehensive FTA database.
  • Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)
    • Under the Southeast Asia tab, useful country-specific publications, documents, and reports, as well as statistical information are available
    • Economic Outlook for Southeast Asia, China and India (2016- ) is a semi-annual publication from the OECD Development Centre on regional economic growth, development, and regional integration relating to ASEAN member countries, China, and India (ISSN: 2310-1113 (online))
    • OECD Trade Policies Papers offer selected trade policy studies prepared for use within the OECD. (ISSN: 1816-6873 (online))
  • UNCTAD Investment Policy Hub Texts of domestic investment laws, bilateral treaties, and investment policy measures, not limited to ASEAN and APEC members, are searchable using the country navigator.
  • UN Comtrade Database is a subscription-based repository of official international trade statistics and relevant analytical tables. Over 170 reporter countries/areas provide the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) with their annual international trade statistics data detailed by commodities/service categories and partner countries.
  • UN ILO Databases on labor and employment issues including ASEAN and APEC members who are ILO Member States:
    • NATLex is a comprehensive database of national labor, social security, and related human rights legislation.
    • NORMLex includes NATLEX as well as information on International Labour Standards (such as ratification information, reporting requirements, and comments of the ILO’s supervisory bodies).
    • EPLex is the Employment Protection Database, and it includes information relating to national and comparative studies on employment termination legislation.
    • IRLex is a database that summarizes the legal framework regulating industrial relations.
    • LEGOSH is a global database on occupational safety and health legislation and national regulatory frameworks.
    • Labor Provisions in Trade Agreements Hub (LP Hub) is a comprehensive, structured compilation of the text of labour provisions in more than 100 bi- and pluri-lateral regional trade agreements (RTAs) and of about 140 economies. It derives its data from WTO’s Regional Trade Agreements Information System (RTA-IS) database.
  • UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Trade, Investment and Innovation Division. Publications include:
    • Asia-Pacific Trade and Investment Report
    • Asia-Pacific Trade and Investment Trends
    • Studies in Trade, Investment and Innovation Series
    • Trade, Investment and Innovation Working Paper Series
  • U.S. Census Bureau Foreign Trade Statistics by Countries – This site provides updated trade statistics of all countries.
  • U.S. International Trade Administration (ITA) – Under the Department of Commerce, the ITA promotes U.S. exports of manufactured goods, nonagricultural commodities and services. The site includes national and sub-national import and export data, data comparison and analysis tools, and a trade policy information system.
  • U.S. International Trade Commission (USITC) – An independent, nonpartisan, quasi-judicial federal agency with trade-related mandates including adjudication, research and analysis, and maintaining the Harmonized Tariff Schedule. The website also includes Dataweb, a system providing U.S. international trade statistics and tariff data.
  • U.S. Office of the Trade Representative (USTR) – Created by the Trade Expansion Act of 1962, the Office was authorized to set and administer overall trade policy. As a chief trade negotiator, USTR represents the United States in the major international trade organizations. The website includes texts of FTAs, BITs, and framework agreements, as well as agreements under negotiation, of which the U.S. is a party.
  • The World Bank. World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) – A centralized open-access platform which includes merchandise trade and tariffs related statistical information complete with simulation and analysis tools. Data is compiled from the UN Comtrade, UNCTAD’s Trade Analysis Information System (TRAINS), WTO’s Integrated Data Base (IDB), and Consolidated Trade Schedule (CTS) databases.

Current Awareness

  • AsiaTimes covers geopolitical, political, economic and business issues in the Asian-Pacific region.
  • The Diplomat is a subscription-based international current-affairs magazine for the Asia-Pacific region. The online magazine has ASEAN Beat blog, collocating posts relating to ASEAN member states.
  • East Asia Forum is based in The Crawford School of Public Policy at the Australian National University. It is a joint initiative of two academic research networks: The East Asian Bureau of Economic Research (EABER) and the South Asian Bureau of Economic Research (SABER). Two publications are available online in the website: East Asia Forum, an online publication, with daily blog posts, weekly lead articles and digests; East Asia Forum Quarterly, a quarterly magazine
  • South China Morning Post is the Hong Kong based newspaper has a topical page on ASEAN news
  • Strait Times is the Singapore based newspaper website has archived news on South East Asian economic integration searchable by tag

7. Online Resources on Belt and Road Initiative

8. Research Guides

Research resources on domestic legal systems of member states in the region:

Understanding international trade and investment related legal regimes and issues:

Understanding US policy on trade and investment in the Asian Pacific region and its involvement with regional alliances:

9. Subscription-Based Specialized Research Portals on Trade Law

  • Trade Law Guide: This WTO research portal contains WTO litigation procedural and jurisprudence documents (Appellate Body and Panel Reports, Arbitration Awards, Arbitration Decisions), commentaries, dispute documents, and negotiating history. It includes principal agreements and instruments with annotated text and a useful article-specific citator.
  • WorldTradeLaw Net, a practice-oriented robust research platform on WTO/GATT law providing summaries and analyses of WTO reports and arbitrations, complete with a WTO case law index for subject retrieval of primary sources and commentaries.
  • World Trade Online has current awareness content on the U.S. role in global trade. The Inside U.S. Trade newsletter provides breaking news and analysis on trade issues.

10. Conclusion

Trade agreements of Southeast Asian countries, particularly ASEAN member states, are often likened to a “living noodle bowl.”[21] It is important for researchers to sort through treaty commitments of individual states, who may be parties to multiple mega-regional trade agreements, some of which are still under negotiation. These nations may, at the same time, be signatories of bilateral FTAs with individual countries and international organizations within, or outside of, the Asia-Pacific region. One should note that a handful of developing economies of the region, such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Bangladesh, have yet to become members of existing mega-regional trade alliances in the region, even though they may have signed, or begun negotiations for, bilateral FTAs or regional agreements with individual member countries.

Global value and supply chains continue to pivot and adapt to trade policy changes resulting from ongoing reciprocal tariffs negotiations subsequent to the April 2, 2025 Executive Order of the second Trump Administration.[22] These negotiations, at the time of writing, are subject to a delayed ninety-day pause until August 1, 2025. [23],[24] ASEAN advocated for a unified response.[25] Of the current ten ASEAN members, only Vietnam has completed bilateral tariffs negotiations with the U.S.[26],[27],[28]

Researchers interested in examining treaty terms and practices, as well as their interpretation, enforcement, and compliance by signatories would benefit from a combination of secondary sources that help track, compile, and contextualize the evolution of, and interconnections among, the different trade regimes, and sector-specific agreements. The secondary sources can range from proprietary and open-access sources, current awareness, and practice-oriented materials to official press releases and reports not for public circulation. For some Southeast Asian countries, English translations of primary sources, for example, national implementing legislation may not be readily available.

[1] ASEAN Leaders’ Statement on the Application of Timor-Leste For ASEAN Membership, ASEAN Main Portal, November 11, 2022.

[2] Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP). Australia Chair of the CPTPP in 2025 (last viewed July 2 2025).

[3] CPTPP Portal, a project of the Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada (last viewed July 2, 2025)

[4] ASEAN, Chile Hold 6th ASEAN-Chile Development Partnership Committee Meeting, originally published on the ASEAN website; republished Targeted News Service (US), Westlaw International News: https://www.westlaw.com/Document/I99534c80039c11f0a171b611d992eba9/View/FullText.html?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&VR=3.0&RS=cblt1.0 (last viewed July 8, 2025) (subscription resource only).

[5] Thomas C. Fischer. A commentary on regional institutions in the Pacific Rim: do APEC and ASEAN still mater? 13 Duke J. of Comp. & Int’l Law, 337, at 363 (2003).

[6] See George Siors, Fostering a proper ASEAN perspective. (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[7] Ben Dolven, The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), CRS In Focus, updated May 22 2019. See also Hien Bui, The ASEAN Human Rights System: a Critical Analysis, 11 Asian J. of Comp. L, 111. (2016).

[8] In re Arbitration Between the Republic of the Philippines and the People’s Republic of China, PCA Case No. 2013-19, Jurisdiction and Admissibility (Oct. 29, 2015); In re Arbitration Between the Republic of the Philippines and the People’s Republic of China, PCA Case No. 2013-19, Award (July 12, 2016) (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[9] See ASEAN Chairman’s statement of the 22nd ASEAN-China Summit, Paragraph 18, Bangkok/Nonthaburi, 3 November 2019. See also ASEAN Priority Areas of Cooperation. Situation in the South China Sea (last viewed July 9, 2025).

[10] Carl Thayer, A Closer Look at the ASEAN-China Single Draft South China Sea Code of Conduct, The Diplomat, August 3 2018, (last viewed July 7, 2025); Nguyen Minh Quang, Negotiating an Effective China–ASEAN South China Sea Code of Conduct, East Asian Forum, July 31, 2019 (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[11] Under Article 1(15) of the ASEAN Charter: “To maintain the centrality and proactive role of ASEAN as the primary driving force in its relations and cooperation with its external partners in a regional architecture that is open, transparent and inclusive.” Additionally, under Article 2(2)(m) of the ASEAN Charter: “ASEAN and its Member States shall act in accordance with the following Principles:… (m) the centrality of ASEAN in external political, economic, social and cultural relations while remaining actively engaged, outward-looking, inclusive and non-discriminatory; and …” (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[12] Kevin Granville, What Is TPP? Behind the Trade Deal That Died, New York Times, updated January 23, 2017 (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[13] James McBride, Andrew Chatzky and Anshu Siripurapu, What’s Next for the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)? CFR Backgrounder. Last updated September 20, 2021. See for an analysis of the formation and development of TPP.

[14] Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP), 3337 UNTS 56101 (last viewed July 2 2025).

[15] Kati Suominen, Two Years into CPTPP, Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), August 9, 2021; Cathleen D. Cimino-Isaacs CPTPP: Overview and Issues for Congress. CRS In Focus, June 16, 2023. For a summary of its transition from TPP, James McBride & Andrew Chatzky, Council of Foreign Relations Backgrounder: What Is the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)?, September 20, 2021 (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[16] Joint Leaders’ Statement on the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) 4 November 2019, Bangkok, Thailand; Joint Leaders’ Statement on The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), Online, November 15, 2020 (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[17] Id.

[18] Harsh V. Pant & Nandini Sarma, Modi Was Right. India Isn’t Ready for Free Trade. November 15, 2019, Foreign Policy (last viewed July 7, 2025).

[19] The official Chinese OBI website Yidaiyilu at (last viewed July 7, 2025) includes information of countries which have signed cooperative documents with China.

[20] U.S. Trade Representative, Indo Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (Last viewed July 8, 2025); Cathleen D. Cimino-Isaacs, et al. Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF) CRS In Focus. July 22, 2024 (last viewed July 8, 2025).

[21] See also an earlier article discussing the fragility of regionalism, Richard E. Baldwin, Managing the Noodle Bowl: The Fragility of East Asian Regionalism, ADB Working Paper Series on Regional Economic Integration, No. 7, February 2007 (last viewed July 7 2025); and a more recent analysis in the context of mega-regional trade pacts: Jeffrey D. Wilson, Mega-Regional Trade Deals in the Asia-Pacific: Choosing Between the TPP and RCEP, 45 J. of Contemporary Asia 345, at 347-348 (2015).

[22] Regulating Imports With a Reciprocal Tariff To Rectify Trade Practices That Contribute to Large and Persistent Annual United States Goods Trade Deficits, Executive Order 14257 of April 2, 2025, as published in 90 Fed. Reg. 15041, April 7, 2025.

[23] Modifying Reciprocal Tariff Rates To Reflect Trading Partner Retaliation and Alignment, Executive Order 14266 of April 9, 2025, as published in 90 Fed. Reg. 15625, April 15, 2025.

[24] Trump Sets Aug. 1 Tariff Start Ahead of Wednesday Deadline, Brendan Murray, Bloomberg News, July 7, 2025, (last viewed July 7, 2025); Executive Order Extending The Modification of the Reciprocal Tariff Rates, July 7, 2025 (last viewed July 8, 2025).

[25] ASEAN’s Response to US Tariffs: Toward a Unified Regional Strategy, ASEAN Briefing from Dezan Shira & Associates, Ayman Falak Medina, April 10, 2025 (last viewed June 30 2025); Southeast Asia central to global trade response, Mari Pangestu and Shiro Armstrong, April 25, 2025 (last viewed June 30, 2025).

[26] The U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral Trade Agreement (BTA). Resources for Understanding (last viewed July 23, 2025).

[27] Ana Swanson, et al. Trump Announces Preliminary Trade Pact With Vietnam, New York Times, July 3, 2025, (last viewed July 3, 2025).

[28] Subsequent reciprocal tariffs deals were made in the days preceding the August 1 deadline: On July 22, 2025, with Indonesia and with the Philippines, (last viewed July 23, 2025).